This invention relates to the use of anti-malarial drugs for inhibiting infection of susceptible cells by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This invention also relates to a method of inhibiting proliferation of HIV. In addition, this invention relates to a method of inhibiting the activity of cryptosporidium parvum.
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a condition which is now of major importance in North America, Europe, and Central Africa. The casual agent of AIDS is believed to be a retrovirus. Recent estimates suggest that approximately 1.5 million Americans may have been exposed to the AIDS virus. The individuals affected show severe immunosuppression, which may be followed by the onset of degenerative and even fatal diseases.
The isolation and characterization of the first AIDS retrovirus, known as LAV, was described in a paper by F. Barre-Sinoussi, et al. Science, 220:868-871 (1983). The use of some extracts of this virus and some of its proteins to detect antibodies against the virus is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,708,818 issued to Dr. Luc Montagnier, et al.
Several isolates of the AIDS retrovirus were subsequently reported by different investigators and the isolates were referred to in the literature by different designations. It is now universally recognized that viruses previously denominated lymphadenopathy associated virus (LAY), immune deficiency associated virus (IDAV1 and IDAV2), human T-lymphotropic virus type III (HTLV-III), and AIDS related virus (ARV) are all variants of the same retrovirus. See, e.g., Nature, 313:636-637 (1985).
A subcommittee empowered by the International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses recently proposed that the AIDS retroviruses be officially designated as the "Human Immunodeficiency Viruses", to be known in abbreviated form as "HIV". Isolates of human retroviruses with clear but limited relationship to isolates of HIV (for example, more than 20% but less than 50% nucleic acid sequence identity) are not to be called HIV unless there are compelling biological and structural similarities to existing members of the group. Science, 232:697 (1986).
Another pathogenic human retrovirus, termed HIV-2 (formerly LAV-2), was recently recovered from West African patients with AIDS. Clayel et al., Science, 233:343-346 (1986). HIV-2 infection is associated with an immunodeficiency syndrome clinical indistinguishable from that caused by the prototype AIDS virus, HIV-1. HIV-2 is related to but distinct from HIV-1. Guyader et al., Nature, 326:662-669 (1987).
Retroviruses genetically related and biologically similar to HIV have been isolated from subhuman primates. These retroviruses are designated as immunodeficiency viruses of the appropriate host species, such as, simian immunodeficiency virus (SIr). SIV was first isolated from captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) at the New England Regional Primate Research Center (NERPRC). This was soon followed by a report of isolation of an SIr called STLV-III from African green monkeys. Extensive serologic cross-reactivity exists between HIV-2 and SIV.
Transmission of HIV frequently takes place through sexual contact, although people using narcotics intravenously also represent a high-risk group. A large number of individuals have also been infected with HIV after receiving contaminated blood or blood products.
It is becoming more evident that other factors are important in the transmission of HIV in view of the occurrence of AIDS in areas endemic of malaria. One factor felt etiologic in AIDS is defective Fc-receptor function in the reticuloendothelial system. B. S. Bender, J. Infect. Dis. , 152:409-412 (1985). Defective Fcreceptor function on red blood cells and subsequent clearance of these IgG coated red cells has been demonstrated in AIDS patients. In addition, retrovirus antibody reactivity to the AIDS virus has shown considerable cross-reactivity with antibody levels against Plasmodium falciparum. R. J. Biggar et al., Lancet, September 7, 1985:520-523. While there remains some debate about the cross-reactivity, R. J. Biggar et al., New Engl. J. Med., 315:57-8 (1986), A. E. Greenburg et al., Lancet, Aug. 2, 1986:247-249, this discussion does not take into account the possibility of dual exposure and clearance of the infective agent of AIDS accompanied by development of antibodies to the AIDS virus. The antibody cross-reactivity between AIDS and malaria is further exhibited by the effectiveness of a rather specific anti-malarial agent in opportunistic infections. Pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine in combination has been shown effective in the treatment of Pneumocystis carinii infections in patients with AIDS. R. D. Pearson et al., Ann. Int. Med., 106:714-718 (1987).
The existence of multiple human immunodeficiency viruses, such as HIV-1 and HIV-2, presents a complex epidemiologic picture. There is a common belief that an effective vaccine or pharmaceutical composition against HIV infection must be developed in order to stem the spread of these retroviruses. Work is progressing on the development of a vaccine, but an effective agent has not yet been found. Thus, there exists a need in the art for a method of inhibiting the activity of HIV in vivo.